Sun Wu
Sun Wu (simplified Chinese:
traditional
Chinese: pinyin:), style name Changqing,
better known as Sun Tzu or Sunzi (simplified Chinese: traditional Chinese: pinyin:
Sūnzǐ; pronounced [swə́n tsɨ̀]), was an ancient Chinese military general,
strategist and philosopher who is traditionally believed, and who is most
likely, to have authored The Art of War,
an influential ancient Chinese book on military strategy.
Sun Tzu has had a significant impact on Chinese and Asian history and culture, both as an
author of The Art of War and through legend. During the 19th and 20th
centuries, Sun Tzu's The Art of War grew in popularity and saw practical
use in Western society,
and his work has continued to influence both Asian and Western culture and
politics.
Historians have
questioned whether or not Sun Tzu was an authentic historical figure.
Traditional accounts place him in the Spring and Autumn Period
of China
(722–481 BC) as a military general serving under King Helü of Wu,
who lived c. 544—496 BC. Modern scholars accepting his historicity place the completion
of The Art of War in the Warring States Period
(476–221 BC), based on the descriptions of warfare in the text, and on the
similarity of text's prose to other works completed in the early Warring States
period.
Traditional
accounts state that his descendant, Sun Bin, also wrote
a treatise on military tactics, titled Sun Bin's Art of War.
Both Sun Wu and Sun Bin were referred to as Sun Tzu in classical Chinese
writings, and some historians believed that Sun Wu was in fact Sun Bin until
Sun Bin's own treatise was discovered in 1972.
Life
The oldest
available sources disagree as to where Sun Tzu was born. The Spring and Autumn Annals
states that Sun Tzu was born in Qi, while the Shiji states that
Sun Tzu was a native of Wu.
Both sources agree that Sun Tzu was born in the late Spring and Autumn Period
of China
(722–481 BC), and that he was active as a general and strategist, serving the
king of Wu, King Helü, in the
late sixth century BC, beginning around 512 BC. Sun Tzu's victories then
inspired him to write The Art of War. The Art of War was one of
the most widely read military treatises in the subsequent Warring States Period
(475–221 BC), a time of constant war among seven nations (Zhao, Qi, Qin, Chu, Han, Wei and Yan) who fought to
control the vast expanse of fertile territory in Eastern China.
One of the more
well-known stories about Sun Tzu, taken from the Shiji,
illustrates Sun Tzu's temperament as follows: Before hiring Sun Tzu, the King
of Wu tested Sun Tzu's skills by commanding him to train a harem of 180
concubines into soldiers. Sun Tzu divided them into two companies, appointing
the two concubines most favored by the king as the company commanders. When Sun
Tzu first ordered the concubines to face right, they giggled. In response, Sun
Tzu said that the general, in this case himself, was responsible for ensuring
that soldiers understood the commands given to them. Then, he reiterated the
command, and again the concubines giggled. Sun Tzu then ordered the execution
of the king's two favored concubines, to the king's protests. He explained that
if the general's soldiers understood their commands but did not obey, it was
the fault of the officers. Sun Tzu also said that once a general was appointed,
it was their duty to carry out their mission, even if the king protested. After
both concubines were killed, new officers were chosen to replace them.
Afterwards, both companies performed their maneuvers flawlessly.
The Shiji claims
that Sun Tzu later proved on the battlefield that his theories were effective
(for example, in the Battle of
Boju), that he had a successful military career, and that he wrote The
Art of War based on his tested expertise. His descendant, Sun Bin, also
became a famous scholar of the military arts.
The Art of War
A bamboo version of The Art of War
The Art of War (simplified Chinese:
traditional
Chinese: pinyin: Sūnzǐ Bīng Fǎ) is attributed to Sun
Tzu. It presents a philosophy
of war for managing conflicts and winning battles. Some modern
scholars believe that, contrary to popular belief, it contains not only the
writings of the original author, but also commentary and clarifications from
later military philosophers, such as Li Quan and Du Mu. It is accepted as a masterpiece on
strategy and frequently cited and referred to by generals and theorists since
it was first published, translated, and distributed internationally. There are
numerous theories concerning when the text was completed, and concerning the
identity of the author or authors, but archeological recoveries have proven that
the Art of War had roughly achieved its current form by at least the early Han dynasty (206
BCE – 220 CE)..Because it is impossible to prove definitively when the Art
of War was completed before this date, the differing theories concerning
the work's author(s) and date of completion are unlikely to ever be completely
resolved.
Of the military texts written before the unification of China
in the 2nd century BC, six major works survived, including The Art of War.
During the Song Dynasty in the
late 1st millennium AD, these six works were combined with a Tang Dynasty text
into a collection called the Seven Military Classics.
As a central part of that compilation, The Art of War formed the
foundations of orthodox military theory in China. Illustrating this point, the
book was required reading to pass the tests needed for imperial appointment to
military positions.
According to Simpkins & Simpkins, Sun Tzu's Art
of War uses language that may be unusual in a Western text on warfare and
strategy. For example, the 11th chapter states that a leader must be
"serene and inscrutable" and capable of comprehending
"unfathomable plans". They state that the text contains many similar
remarks that have long confused Western readers lacking an awareness of the East Asian context.
The meaning of such statements are clearer when interpreted in the context of Taoist thought and
practice. Sun Tzu viewed the ideal general as an enlightened Taoist
master, which has led to The Art of War being considered a prime example
of Taoist strategy.The Art of War is distinguished from similar Western
works, such as Prussian general Carl von Clausewitz's
On War, by this
spiritual dimension. Awareness of the Taoist viewpoint in The Art of War
is essential to understanding its intended meaning.
The book is not only popular among military
theorists, but has also become increasingly popular among political leaders and
those in business management.
Despite its title, The Art of War addresses strategy in a broad fashion,
touching upon public administration
and planning. The text outlines theories of battle but also advocates diplomacy and
cultivating relationships with other nations as essential to the health of a
state.The Art of War is listed on the Marine Corps Professional Reading
Program (formerly known as the Commandant's Reading List). It is recommended
reading for all United States Military Intelligence personnel and is required
reading for all CIA officers.
In 1972, scholars uncovered a collection of
ancient texts written on unusually well-preserved bamboo slips. Among
them were the Art of War and Sun Bin's Military Methods. Although
Han Dynasty bibliographies noted the latter publication as extant and written
by a descendant of Sun, it had since been lost. The finding of Sun Bin's work
is considered to be extremely important, both because of Sun Bin's relationship
to Sun Tzu, and because of the work's addition to the body of military thought
in late Chinese antiquity. The discovery as a whole significantly expanded the
body of surviving Warring
States military theory. Sun Bin's treatise is the only known
military text surviving from the Warring States
period discovered in the twentieth century, and bears the closest similarity to
the Art of War
of all surviving texts.
Historicity
Scholars have expressed doubt in Sun Tzu's
historicity and the traditional dating of the Art of War. The skepticism
is fueled by factors that include historical inaccuracies and anachronisms in
the text, as well as the unlikelihood of the execution of the king's favorite
concubines. Increasing skepticism, which sometimes cause scholars to completely
deny the existence of a historical figure named Sun Wu (Sun Tzu), has led to
acrimonious debate between skeptics and traditionalists, especially in China.
Attribution of the Art of War's authorship varies among scholars, and
have included people and movements including Sun; Chu
scholar Wu Zixu; an unknown
author; a school of thought in Qi or Wu; Sun Bin, and others.
Traditionalists attribute the authorship of The
Art of War to the historical figure Sun Wu, who is chronicled in the Records of the Grand Historian
and the Spring and
Autumn Annals. He was reputedly active in the late 6th century
BC, beginning c. 512 BC. The appearance of features from the Art of War
in other historical texts is considered to be proof of his historicity and
authorship. Certain strategic concepts, such as terrain classification, are
attributed to Sun Tzu. Their use in other works, such as by the compilers of the Methods of the Sima,
is considered proof of Sun Tzu's historical priority.
Scholars that identify issues with the
traditionalist view point to anachronisms in the Art of War that include
terms, technology, philosophical ideas, events, and military techniques. There
is a disparity between the large scale wars and sophisticated techniques
detailed in the text, and the more primitive small scale battles that
predominated the 6th century BC. However, according to Ralph D. Sawyer, it is
very likely Sun Tzu did actually exist and not only served as a general, but
also wrote the core of the book that bears his name. The teachings were
probably taught to the succeeding generations in the family or a small school
of disciples, including Sun-Tzu's descendant, Sun Pin, and were revised and
expanded upon.
Legacy
Sun Tzu's Art of War has influenced many
notable figures. Traditional histories recount that the first emperor of a
unified China,
Qin Shi Huang,
considered the book invaluable in ending the Age of Warring States. The
Art of War was introduced in Japan, c. AD 760, and the book
quickly became popular among Japanese generals. The work also significantly
influenced the unification of Japan.
Mastery of its teachings was honored among the samurai, and its
teachings were both exhorted and exemplified by influential daimyos and shoguns, such as Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi,
and Tokugawa Ieyasu.[18]
Historians popularly recount how French emperor Napoleon studied
Sun's military writings and used them to successfully wage war against the rest
of Europe. The emperor's disregard for central
principles such as attentiveness to temporal conditions is largely credited for
his eventual defeat in
Russia. Admiral of
the Fleet Tōgō
Heihachirō, who led Japan's
forces to victory against Russia
in the Russo-Japanese War,
was an avid reader of The Art of War.
Communist Chinese leader Mao Zedong
partially credited his victory over Chiang Kai-shek and
the Kuomintang in 1949
to The Art of War. The work strongly influenced Mao's writings about guerrilla warfare,
which further influenced communist insurgencies around the world.
General Vo Nguyen Giap, the
military mastermind behind victories over French and American forces in Vietnam, was an
avid student and practitioner of Sun Tzu's ideas. America's defeat here, more than
any other event, brought Sun Tzu to the attention of American military leaders.
Ho Chi Minh
translated the work for his Vietnamese officers to study.
The Department of the Army in the United States,
through its Command and General Staff College, has directed all units to
maintain libraries within their respective headquarters for the continuing
education of personnel in the art of war. The Art of War is mentioned as
an example of works to be maintained at each individual unit, and staff duty
officers are obliged to prepare short papers for presentation to other officers
on their readings.
Sun Tzu's The Art of War is listed on the
Marine Corps Professional Reading Program (formerly known as the Commandant's
Reading List).During the Persian
Gulf War in the 1990s, both General Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr.
and General Colin Powell
practiced Sun Tzu's principles of deception, speed, and attacking the enemy's
weakness.
Mark McNeilly writes in Sun Tzu and the Art of
Modern Warfare that a modern interpretation of Sun and his importance
throughout Chinese history is critical in understanding China's push to
becoming a superpower in the 21st century. Modern Chinese scholars explicitly
rely on historical strategic lessons and The Art of War in developing
their theories, seeing a direct relationship between their modern struggles and
those of China
in Sun Tzu's time. There is a great perceived value in Sun Tzu's teachings and
other traditional Chinese writers, which are used regularly in developing the
strategies of the Chinese state and its leaders.
Sun Jian
and his sons Sun Quan and Sun Ce, military
leaders during the Three
Kingdoms period, claimed to be descendants of Sun Tzu. Sun Quan
would eventually go on to become the King of the kingdom Wu.
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