Confucius
Confucius (551-479 BCE), according to Chinese tradition, was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought. His teachings, preserved in the Lunyu or Analects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education and comportment of the ideal man, how such an individual should live his live and interact with others, and the forms of society and government in which he should participate. Fung Yu-lan, one of the great 20th century authorities on the history of Chinese thought, compares Confucius' influence in Chinese history with that of Socrates in the West.
1. Confucius' Life
The sources for Confucius' life are later and do not carefully
separate fiction and fact. Thus it is wise to regard much of what is
known of him as legendary. Many of the legends surrounding Confucius
at the end of the 2nd century BCE were included by the Han
dynasty court historian, Sima Qian (145-c.85 BCE), in his well-known
and often-quoted Records of the Grand Historian
(Shiji). This collection of tales opens by identifying
Confucius' ancestors as members of the Royal State of Song. It notes
as well that his great grandfather, fleeing the turmoil in his native
Song, had moved to Lu, somewhere near the present town of Qufu in
southeastern Shandong, where the family became impoverished. Confucius
is described, by Sima Qian and other sources, as having endured a
poverty-stricken and humiliating youth and been forced, upon reaching
manhood, to undertake such petty jobs as accounting and caring for
livestock. Sima Qian's account includes the tale of how Confucius was
born in answer to his parents' prayers at a sacred hill (qiu)
called Ni. Confucius' surname Kong (which means literally an
utterance of thankfulness when prayers have been answered), his
tabooed given name Qiu, and his social name Zhongni,
all appear connected to the miraculous circumstances of his
birth. This casts doubt, then, on Confucius' royal genealogy as found
in Sima Qian. Similarly, Confucius' recorded age at death,
‘seventy-two,’ is a ‘magic number’ with
far-reaching significance in early Chinese literature. We do not know
how Confucius himself was educated, but tradition has it that he
studied ritual with the Daoist Master Lao Dan, music with Chang Hong,
and the lute with Music-master Xiang. In his middle age Confucius is
supposed to have gathered about him a group of disciples whom he
taught and also to have devoted himself to political matters in
Lu. The number of Confucius' disciples has been greatly exaggerated,
with Sima Qian and other sources claiming that there were as many as
three thousand of them. Sima Qian goes on to say that, “Those
who, in their own person, became conversant with the Six Disciplines
[taught by Confucius], numbered seventy-two.” The 4th
century BCE Mencius and some other early works give their
number as seventy. Perhaps seventy or seventy-two were a maximum,
though both of these numbers are suspicious given Confucius' supposed
age at death.
At the age of fifty, when Duke Ding of Lu was on the throne,
Confucius' talents were recognized and he was appointed Minister of
Public Works and then Minister of Crime. But Confucius apparently
offended members of the Lu nobility who were vying with Duke Ding for
power (or was it the duke himself that Confucius had rubbed the wrong
way?) and he was subsequently forced to leave office and go into
exile. As in other ancient cultures, exile and suffering are common
themes in the lives of the heroes of the early Chinese tradition. In
the company of his disciples, Confucius left Lu and traveled in the
states of Wei, Song, Chen, Cai, and Chu, purportedly looking for a
ruler who might employ him but meeting instead with indifference and,
occasionally, severe hardship and danger. Several of these episodes,
as preserved in the Records of the Grand Historian, appear to
be little more than prose retellings of songs found in the ancient
Chinese Book of Songs, Confucius' life is thus rendered a
re-enactment of the suffering and alienation of the personas of the
poems.
In any case, by most traditional accounts, Confucius returned to Lu in
484 BCE and spent the remainder of his life teaching, putting in order
the Book of Songs, the Book of Documents, and other
ancient classics, as well as editing the Spring and Autumn
Annals, the court chronicle of Lu. Sima Qian's account also
provides background on Confucius' connection to the early canonical
texts on ritual and on music (the latter of which was lost at an early
date). Sima Qian claims, moreover, that, “In his later years,
Confucius delighted in the Yi”—the famous, some
might say infamous, divination manual popular to this day in China and
in the West. The Analects passage which appears to
corroborate Sima Qian's claim seems corrupt and hence unreliable on
this point. Confucius' traditional association with these works led
them and related texts to be revered as the “Confucian
Classics” and made Confucius himself the spiritual ancestor of
later teachers, historians, moral philosophers, literary scholars, and
countless others whose lives and works figure prominently in Chinese
intellectual history.
Our best source for understanding Confucius and his thought is the
Analects. But the Analects is a problematic and
controversial work, having been compiled in variant versions long
after Confucius's death by disciples or the disciples of disciples.
Some have argued that, because of the text's inconsistencies and
incompatibilities of thought, there is much in the Analects
that is non-Confucian and should be discarded as a basis for
understanding the thought of Confucius. Benjamin Schwartz cautions us
against such radical measures.
While textual criticism based on rigorous philological and historic analysis is crucial, and while the later sections [of the Analects] do contain late materials, the type of textual criticism that is based on considerations of alleged logical inconsistencies and incompatibilities of thought must be viewed with great suspicion. . . . While none of us comes to such an enterprise without deep-laid assumptions about necessary logical relations and compatibilities, we should at least hold before ourselves the constant injunction to mistrust all our unexamined preconceptions on these matters when dealing with comparative thought. (The World of Thought in Ancient China, p. 61)
Book X of the Analects consists of personal observations of
how Confucius comported himself as a thinker, teacher, and official.
Some have argued that these passages were originally more general
prescriptions on how a gentleman should dress and behave that were
relabeled as descriptions of Confucius. Traditionally, Book X has been
regarded as providing an intimate portrait of Confucius and has been
read as a biographical sketch. The following passages provide a few
examples.
Confucius, at home in his native village, was simple and unassuming in manner, as though he did not trust himself to speak. But when in the ancestral temple or at Court he speaks readily, though always choosing his words with due caution. (Lunyu 10.1)
When at court conversing with the officers of a lower grade, he is friendly, though straightforward; when conversing with officers of a higher grade, he is restrained but precise. When the ruler is present he is wary, but not cramped. (Lunyu 10.2)
On entering the Palace Gate he seems to contract his body, as though there were not sufficient room to admit him. If he halts, it must never be in the middle of the gate, nor in going through does he ever tread on the threshold. (Lunyu 10.4)
When fasting in preparation for sacrifice he must wear the Bright Robe, and it must be of linen. He must change his food and also the place where he commonly sits. He does not object to his rice being thoroughly cleaned, nor to his meat being finely minced. (Lunyu 10.7, 10.8)
When sending a messenger to enquire after someone in another country, he bows himself twice while seeing the messenger off. (Lunyu 10.15)
In bed he avoided lying in the posture of a corpse … On meeting anyone in deep mourning he must bow across the bar of his chariot. (Lunyu 10.24, 10.25)
Analects passages such as these made Confucius the
model of courtliness and personal decorum for countless generations of
Chinese officials.
By the 4th century BCE, Confucius was recognized as a
unique figure, a sage who was ignored but should have been recognized
and become a king. At the end of the 4th century, Mencius
says of Confucius: “Ever since man came into this world, there
has never been one greater than Confucius.” And in two passages
Mencius implies that Confucius was one of the great sage kings who,
according to his reckoning, arises every five hundred years. Confucius
also figures prominently as the subject of anecdotes and the teacher
of wisdom in the writing of Xunzi, a third century BCE follower of
Confucius' teachings. Indeed chapters twenty-eight to thirty of the
Xunzi, which some have argued were not the work of Xunzi but
compilations by his disciples, look like an alternative, and
considerably briefer, version of the Analects.
Confucius and his followers also inspired considerable criticism from
other thinkers. The authors of the Zhuangzi took particular
delight in parodying Confucius and the teachings conventionally
associated with him. But Confucius' reputation was so great that even
the Zhuangzi appropriates him to give voice to Daoist
teachings.
2. Confucius' Social Philosophy
Confucius' teachings and his conversations and exchanges with his
disciples are recorded in the Lunyu or Analects, a
collection that probably achieved something like its present form
around the second century BCE. While Confucius believes that people
live their lives within parameters firmly established by
Heaven—which, often, for him means both a purposeful Supreme
Being as well as ‘nature’ and its fixed cycles and
patterns—he argues that men are responsible for their actions
and especially for their treatment of others. We can do little or
nothing to alter our fated span of existence but we determine what we
accomplish and what we are remembered for.
Confucius represented his teachings as lessons transmitted from
antiquity. He claimed that he was “a transmitter and not a
maker” and that all he did reflected his “reliance on and
love for the ancients.” (Lunyu 7.1) Confucius pointed
especially to the precedents established during the height of the
royal Zhou (roughly the first half of the first millennium, BCE). Such
justifications for one's ideas may have already been conventional in
Confucius' day. Certainly his claim that there were antique precedents
for his ideology had a tremendous influence on subsequent thinkers
many of whom imitated these gestures. But we should not regard the
contents of the Analects as consisting of old ideas. Much of
what Confucius taught appears to have been original to him and to have
represented a radical departure from the ideas and practices of his
day.
Confucius also claimed that he enjoyed a special and privileged
relationship with Heaven and that, by the age of fifty, he had come to
understand what Heaven had mandated for him and for mankind.
(Lunyu 2.4). Confucius was also careful to instruct his
followers that they should never neglect the offerings due Heaven.
(Lunyu 3.13) Some scholars have seen a contradiction between
Confucius' reverence for Heaven and what they believe to be his
skepticism with regard to the existence of ‘the spirits.’
But the Analects passages that reveal Confucius's attitudes
toward spiritual forces (Lunyu 3.12, 6.20, and 11.11) do not
suggest that he was skeptical. Rather they show that Confucius revered
and respected the spirits, thought that they should be worshipped with
utmost sincerity, and taught that serving the spirits was a far more
difficult and complicated matter than serving mere mortals.
Confucius' social philosophy largely revolves around the concept of
ren, “compassion” or “loving others.”
Cultivating or practicing such concern for others involved deprecating
oneself. This meant being sure to avoid artful speech or an
ingratiating manner that would create a false impression and lead to
self-aggrandizement. (Lunyu 1.3) Those who have cultivated
ren are, on the contrary, “simple in manner and slow of
speech.” (Lunyu 13.27). For Confucius, such concern for
others is demonstrated through the practice of forms of the Golden
Rule: “What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to
others;” “Since you yourself desire standing then help
others achieve it, since you yourself desire success then help others
attain it.” (Lunyu 12.2, 6.30). He regards devotion to
parents and older siblings as the most basic form of promoting the
interests of others before one's own and teaches that such altruism
can be accomplished only by those who have learned
self-discipline.
Learning self-restraint involves studying and mastering li,
the ritual forms and rules of propriety through which one expresses
respect for superiors and enacts his role in society in such a way
that he himself is worthy of respect and admiration. A concern for
propriety should inform everything that one says and does:
Look at nothing in defiance of ritual, listen to nothing in defiance of ritual, speak of nothing in defiance or ritual, never stir hand or foot in defiance of ritual. (Lunyu 12.1)
Subjecting oneself to ritual does not, however, mean suppressing one's
desires but instead learning how to reconcile one's own desires with
the needs of one's family and community. Confucius and many of his
followers teach that it is by experiencing desires that we learn the
value of social strictures that make an ordered society possible (See
Lunyu 2.4.). Nor does Confucius' emphasis on ritual mean that
he was a punctilious ceremonialist who thought that the rites of
worship and of social exchange had to be practiced correctly at all
costs. Confucius taught, on the contrary, that if one did not possess
a keen sense of the well-being and interests of others his ceremonial
manners signified nothing. (Lunyu 3.3). Equally important was
Confucius' insistence that the rites not be regarded as mere forms,
but that they be practiced with complete devotion and
sincerity. “He [i.e., Confucius] sacrificed to the dead as if
they were present. He sacrificed to the spirits as if the spirits were
present. The Master said, ‘I consider my not being present at
the sacrifice as though there were no sacrifice.’”
(Lunyu 3.12)
While ritual forms often have to do with the more narrow relations of
family and clan, ren, however, is to be practiced broadly and
informs one's interactions with all people. Confucius warns those in
power that they should not oppress or take for granted even the
lowliest of their subjects. “You may rob the Three Armies of
their commander, but you cannot deprive the humblest peasant of his
opinion.” (Lunyu 9.26) Confucius regards loving others
as a calling and a mission for which one should be ready to die
(Lunyu 15.9).
3. Confucius' Political Philosophy
Confucius' political philosophy is also rooted in his belief that a
ruler should learn self-discipline, should govern his subjects by his
own example, and should treat them with love and concern. “If
the people be led by laws, and uniformity among them be sought by
punishments, they will try to escape punishment and have no sense of
shame. If they are led by virtue, and uniformity sought among them
through the practice of ritual propriety, they will possess a sense of
shame and come to you of their own accord.” (Lunyu 2.3;
see also 13.6.) It seems apparent that in his own day, however,
advocates of more legalistic methods were winning a large following
among the ruling elite. Thus Confucius' warning about the ill
consequences of promulgating law codes should not be interpreted as an
attempt to prevent their adoption but instead as his lament that his
ideas about the moral suasion of the ruler were not proving
popular.
Most troubling to Confucius was his perception that the political
institutions of his day had completely broken down. He attributed this
collapse to the fact that those who wielded power as well as those who
occupied subordinate positions did so by making claim to titles for
which they were not worthy. When asked by a ruler of the large state
of Qi, Lu's neighbor on the Shandong peninsula, about the principles
of good government, Confucius is reported to have replied: “Good
government consists in the ruler being a ruler, the minister being a
minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son.”
(Lunyu 12.11) If I claim for myself a title and attempt to
participate in the various hierarchical relationships to which I would
be entitled by virtue of that title, then I should live up to the
meaning of the title that I claim for myself. Confucius' analysis of
the lack of connection between actualities and their names and the
need to correct such circumstances is usually referred to as
Confucius' theory of zhengming. Elsewhere in the
Analects, Confucius says to his disciple Zilu that the first
thing he would do in undertaking the administration of a state is
zhengming. (Lunyu 13.3). Xunzi composed an entire
essay entitled Zhengming. But for Xunzi the term referred to
the proper use of language and how one should go about inventing new
terms that were suitable to the age. For Confucius, zhengming
does not seem to refer to the ‘rectification of names’
(this is the way the term is most often translated by scholars of the
Analects), but instead to rectifying behavior of people so
that it exactly corresponds to the language with which they identify
and describe themselves. Confucius believed that this sort of
rectification had to begin at the very top of the government, because
it was at the top that the discrepancy between names and actualities
had originated. If the ruler's behavior is rectified then the people
beneath him will follow suit. In a conversation with Ji Kangzi (who
had usurped power in Lu), Confucius advised: “If your desire is
for good, the people will be good. The moral character of the ruler is
the wind; the moral character of those beneath him is the grass. When
the wind blows, the grass bends.” (Lunyu 12.19)
For Confucius, what characterized superior rulership was the
possession of de or ‘virtue.’ Conceived of as a
kind of moral power that allows one to win a following without
recourse to physical force, such ‘virtue’ also enabled the
ruler to maintain good order in his state without troubling himself
and by relying on loyal and effective deputies. Confucius claimed
that, “He who governs by means of his virtue is, to use an
analogy, like the pole-star: it remains in its place while all the
lesser stars do homage to it.” (Lunyu 2.1) The way to
maintain and cultivate such royal ‘virtue’ was through the
practice and enactment of li or
‘rituals’—the ceremonies that defined and punctuated
the lives of the ancient Chinese aristocracy. These ceremonies
encompassed: the sacrificial rites performed at ancestral temples to
express humility and thankfulness; the ceremonies of enfeoffment,
toasting, and gift exchange that bound together the aristocracy into a
complex web of obligation and indebtedness; and the acts of politeness
and decorum—such things as bowing and yielding—that
identified their performers as gentlemen. In an influential study,
Herbert Fingarette argues that the performance of these various
ceremonies, when done correctly and sincerely, involves a
‘magical’ quality that underlies the efficacy of royal
‘virtue’ in accomplishing the aims of the ruler.
4. Confucius and Education
A hallmark of Confucius' thought is his emphasis on education and
study. He disparages those who have faith in natural understanding or
intuition and argues that the only real understanding of a subject
comes from long and careful study. Study, for Confucius, means finding
a good teacher and imitating his words and deeds. A good teacher is
someone older who is familiar with the ways of the past and the
practices of the ancients. (See Lunyu 7.22) While he
sometimes warns against excessive reflection and meditation,
Confucius' position appears to be a middle course between studying and
reflecting on what one has learned. “He who learns but does not
think is lost. He who thinks but does not learn is in great
danger.” (Lunyu 2.15) Confucius, himself, is credited
by the tradition with having taught altogether three thousand
students, though only seventy are said to have truly mastered the arts
he cherished. Confucius is willing to teach anyone, whatever their
social standing, as long as they are eager and tireless. He taught his
students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined
arts. While he also emphasizes the “Six Arts” -- ritual,
music, archery, chariot-riding, calligraphy, and computation -- it is
clear that he regards morality the most important subject. Confucius'
pedagogical methods are striking. He never discourses at length on a
subject. Instead he poses questions, cites passages from the
classics, or uses apt analogies, and waits for his students to arrive
at the right answers. “I only instruct the eager and enlighten
the fervent. If I hold up one corner and a student cannot come back to
me with the other three, I do not go on with the lesson.”
(Lunyu 7.8).
Confucius' goal is to create gentlemen who carry themselves with
grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. His
strong dislike of the sycophantic “petty men,” whose
clever talk and pretentious manner win them an audience, is reflected
in numerous Lunyu passages. Confucius finds himself in an age
in which values are out of joint. Actions and behavior no longer
correspond to the labels originally attached to them. “Rulers do
not rule and subjects do not serve,” he
observes. (Lunyu 12.11; cf. also 13.3) This means that words
and titles no longer mean what they once did. Moral education is
important to Confucius because it is the means by which one can
rectify this situation and restore meaning to language and values to
society. He believes that the most important lessons for obtaining
such a moral education are to be found in the canonical Book of
Songs, because many of its poems are both beautiful and
good. Thus Confucius places the text first in his curriculum and
frequently quotes and explains its lines of verse. For this reason,
the Lunyu is also an important source for Confucius'
understanding of the role poetry and art more generally play in the
moral education of gentlemen as well as in the reformation of
society. Recent archaeological discoveries in China of previously lost
ancient manuscripts reveal other aspects of Confucius's reverence for
the Book of Songs and its importance in moral
education. These manuscripts show that Confucius had found in the
canonical text valuable lessons on how to cultivate moral qualities in
oneself as well as how to comport oneself humanely and responsibly in
public.
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